Liberty Street Economics

May 1, 2026

Explaining the K‑Shaped Economy: What’s Behind the Divide?

Rajashri Chakrabarti, Thu Pham, Beck Pierce, and Maxim L. Pinkovskiy

split photo of two different women: one is carrying shopping bags in a high end retail store. The other is looking over a receipt from a grocery shopping as she carries the shopping cart.

In our companion post, we used a new module of our Economic Heterogeneity Indicators (EHIs) to shed light on how recent retail spending growth has been driven by high-income households. This fact is consistent with the popular press’s idea of a “K-shaped economy” in which higher-income households experience faster growth in spending than lower-income households. In this post, we dive deeper into the reasons behind this divergence by analyzing for which goods this trend holds true and ask whether it can be explained by changes in wages, inflation, or wealth. We find that, since 2023, wealth has increased the most for high-income households, while inflation has risen the most for low-income households, with both factors helping explain the fact that real retail spending rose the most for high-income households. In contrast, earnings display a more mixed pattern, though earnings of the highest earners have grown more rapidly than earnings of the lowest earners.

Posted at 10:01 am in Household Finance, Inequality, K-Shaped Economy, Microeconomics | Permalink | Comments (0)

Tracking the K‑Shaped Economy: Who’s Driving Spending?

Rajashri Chakrabarti, Thu Pham, Beck Pierce, and Maxim L. Pinkovskiy

Shopping Spree in Modern Retail Environment

Aggregate real consumer spending has risen solidly since 2023. However, it is less clear how widely shared this improvement has been across all segments of society. This is important because systematic heterogeneity may mask the dependence of aggregate growth on a relatively small group of households and thus conceal macroeconomic risks. In this post, we use consumer spending data recently added to the Economic Heterogeneity Indicators (EHIs) and find that retail spending growth has been driven by high-income households—those earning more than $125,000 per year. In the popular press, the phenomenon of higher-income households growing at a faster rate than lower-income households has been referred to as the K-shaped economy. We find that consumption has exhibited a K-shaped economy since 2023, although not in the pre-COVID period or during the post-COVID recovery.

Posted at 10:00 am in Household Finance, Inequality, K-Shaped Economy, Microeconomics | Permalink | Comments (0)

April 16, 2026

Bank Failures: The Roles of Solvency and Liquidity

Sergio Correia, Stephan Luck, and Emil Verner

Photo of a long line of customers waiting to get into a Bank, open for the first time since the federal government takeover due to the bank's subprime mortgages with people with bad or no credit history.

Do banks fail because of runs or because they become insolvent? Answering this question is central to understanding financial crises and designing effective financial stability policies. Long-run historical evidence reveals that the root cause of bank failures is usually insolvency. The importance of bank runs is somewhat overstated. Runs matter, but in most cases they trigger or accelerate failure at already weak banks, rather than cause otherwise sound banks to fail.

Posted at 10:00 am in Bank Capital, Banks, Liquidity, Panic | Permalink | Comments (0)

April 15, 2026

The R*–Labor Share Nexus

Sophia Cho and John C. Williams

Road construction with view of two human workers beyond road mac

Over the past quarter century, the U.S. economy has experienced significant declines in both the labor share of income and the natural rate of interest, referred to as R*. Existing research has largely analyzed these two developments in isolation. In this post, we provide a simple model that captures the joint evolution of the labor share and R*, which we call the R*–labor share nexus. Our key finding is that structural changes affecting R* also influence the evolution of the labor share, and thereby wages and prices. This highlights a potentially important channel, absent from many macroeconomic models, through which the factors that determine R* also affect the labor share and, in turn, broader macroeconomic developments, with implications for monetary policy.

Posted at 7:00 am in Macroeconomics | Permalink | Comments (0)

April 14, 2026

Use of Gen AI in the Workplace and the Value of Access to Training

Ali Hashim, Gizem Kosar, and Wilbert van der Klaauw

Image of workers in business suits being trained in AI through whiteboard and computer screen

The rapid spread of generative AI (AI) tools is reshaping the workplace at a remarkable rate. Yet relatively little is known about whether workers have access to these tools, how the tools affect workers’ daily productivity, and how much workers value the training needed to use the tools effectively. In this post, we shed light on these issues by drawing on supplemental questions in the November 2025 Survey of Consumer Expectations (SCE), fielded to a representative sample of the U.S. population. We find that adoption of AI tools at work is heterogeneous, that a sizable share of workers see AI training as important, and that a significant share of employers are nonetheless not yet providing access to AI tools or training on how to use them.

Posted at 10:30 am in Expectations, Human Capital, Labor Market | Permalink | Comments (0)

April 13, 2026

What Millions of Homeowner’s Insurance Contracts Reveal About Risk Sharing

Hyeyoon Jung and Jaehoon (Kyle) Jung

Hurricane Debby tropical rainstorm flooded residential homes and cars in suburban community in Sarasota, Florida. Aftermath of natural disaster.

Housing is the largest component of assets held by households in the United States, totaling $48 trillion in 2025. When natural disasters strike, the resulting damage to homes can be large relative to households’ liquid savings. Homeowner’s insurance is the primary financial tool households use to protect themselves against property risk. Despite the economic importance of homeowner’s insurance, we know surprisingly little about how insurance contracts are actually designed with respect to property risk. In this post, which is based on our new paper, “Economics of Property Insurance,” we examine how homeowner’s insurance contracts are structured in practice. Using a new granular dataset covering millions of homeowner’s insurance policies, we document four striking patterns about coverage limits, deductibles, insurance pricing, and the distribution of property losses.

Posted at 7:00 am in Household Finance | Permalink | Comments (0)

April 9, 2026

A Closer Look at Emerging Market Resilience During Recent Shocks

Hunter L. Clark, Jeffrey B. Dawson, and Julian Gonzalez-Murphy

Ai generated decorative image of flags of emerging markets done in the style of watercolor.

A succession of shocks to the global economy in recent years has focused attention on the improved economic and financial resilience of emerging market economies. For some of these economies, this assessment is well-founded and highlights the fruits of deep, structural economic reforms since the 1990s. However, for a much larger universe of countries, the ability to weather shocks is still mixed and many remain vulnerable. In this post, we explore the divide between the two sets of countries and focus on the effects of recent economic shocks, including the ongoing conflict in the Middle East.

Posted at 7:00 am in International Economics | Permalink | Comments (0)

April 6, 2026

The Fed Has Two Tools to Influence Money Market Conditions

Adam Copeland and Owen Engbretson

Image of the Federal Reserve building in Washington, D.C.

The Federal Reserve’s 2022-23 tightening cycle involved the use of two monetary policy tools: changes in administrative rates and changes in the size of its balance sheet. This post highlights the results of a recent Staff Report that explores how these tools affect money market conditions. Using confidential trade-level data, we find that both tools have significant effects on the pricing of funds sourced through repo. These results suggest that the Fed can manage how financing conditions are affected even as it influences economic conditions. For example, the Fed can lower its administrative rates to loosen economic conditions, while shrinking its balance sheet to maintain financing conditions in the money markets.

Posted at 8:51 am in Federal Reserve, Monetary Policy, Repo | Permalink | Comments (0)

April 2, 2026

Treasury Market Liquidity Since April 2025

Henry Dyer and Michael J. Fleming

In this post, we examine the evolution of U.S. Treasury market liquidity over the past year, which has witnessed myriad economic and political developments. Liquidity worsened markedly one year ago as volatility increased following the announcement of higher-than-expected tariffs. Liquidity quickly improved when the tariff increases were partially rolled back and then remained fairly stable thereafter (through the end of our sample in February 2026), including after the recent Supreme Court decision striking down the emergency tariffs and the subsequent announcement of new tariffs.

Posted at 7:00 am in Banks, Liquidity, Treasury | Permalink

March 31, 2026

Behind the ATM: Exploring the Structure of Bank Holding Companies

Lily Gordon and Lee Seltzer

Online banking concept with blurred city abstract lights background

Many modern banking organizations are highly complex. A “bank” is often a larger structure made up of distinct entities, each subject to different regulatory, supervisory, and reporting requirements. For researchers and policymakers, understanding how these institutions are structured and how they have evolved over time is essential. In this post, we illustrate what a modern financial holding company looks like in practice, document how banks’ organizational structures have changed over time, and explain why these details matter for conducting accurate analyses of the financial system.

Posted at 9:00 am in Banks | Permalink

Markets & Policy Implementation

Liberty Street Economics

Explaining the K‑Shaped Economy: What’s Behind the Divide?

Tracking the K‑Shaped Economy: Who’s Driving Spending?

Bank Failures: The Roles of Solvency and Liquidity

Use of Gen AI in the Workplace and the Value of Access to Training

What Millions of Homeowner’s Insurance Contracts Reveal About Risk Sharing

A Closer Look at Emerging Market Resilience During Recent Shocks

The Fed Has Two Tools to Influence Money Market Conditions

Treasury Market Liquidity Since April 2025

Behind the ATM: Exploring the Structure of Bank Holding Companies

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